Sociology offers a perspective, a view of the
world. The sociological perspective opens a window into unfamiliar worlds and
offers a fresh look at familiar worlds. Sociologists study the broader social
contexts that underlie human behavior. These include the social groups that
influence human behavior and the larger society that organizes it.
The sociological perspective is an approach
to understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social
context. C. Wright Mills referred to the sociological perspective as the
intersection of biography (the individual) and history (social factors that
influence the individual).
Sociology is one of several disciplines
referred to as social sciences. As the term implies, social sciences address
the social world. The natural sciences, on the other hand, are the intellectual
and academic disciplines designed to explain and predict the events in the
natural environment. In addition to sociology, the other social sciences
include anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology.
As a scientific discipline, sociology seeks
to explain why something happens, attempts to make generalizations that can be
applied to a broader group or situation, and predict what will happen based on
the knowledge received. Sociology specifically seeks to explain the causes of
human behavior and to recognize the patterns of human behavior. It also seeks
to predict the future behavior of people. Although sociologists usually do not
make decisions on how society should be changed or people treated, sociologists
provide valuable data obtained through research that can be used by authorities
who make such decisions.
Sociology grew out of the social, political,
economic, and technological revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. The Industrial Revolution, in particular, eroded old traditions and
necessitated new ways of perceiving and examining the social world. With the
success of the natural sciences serving as a model for the social sciences,
sociology emerged in Western Europe as a distinct discipline in the mid-1800s.
Early sociologists who examined the social
effects of industrialization included Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl
Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Harriet Martineau. The idea of applying
the scientific method to the social world, known as positivism, was first
proposed by Auguste Comte. Based on this innovation and Comte's effort to apply
the scientific method to social life, Comte is credited as the founder of
sociology. Herbert Spencer, one of the most dominant and influential English
sociologists, is often called the "second founder of sociology". Spencer's
concept of Social Darwinism profoundly disagreed with Comte's philosophies.
Max Weber advocated a subjective
approach-"Verstehen," the German term for "grasp by
insight"-to understanding why people act as they do. In contrast, Emile
Durkheim believed that sociologists should primarily focus on uncovering social
facts-the objective social conditions that influence people's behaviors.
Verstehen and social facts are not mutually
exclusive types of social research. Contemporary sociologists often employ both
approaches to examine and understand the social contexts that underlie human
behavior.
The early history of sociology in North
America was characterized by a debate over whether sociology should analyze
society or reform society. Early sociology programs were initiated at the
University of Kansas in 1890, the University of Chicago in 1892, and Atlanta
University in 1897. Albion Small, George Herbert Mead, Robert E. Park, and
Ernest Burgess were among the first academicians who dedicated their professional
careers to the development of sociological theory. Other sociologists, such as
Jane Addams, devoted their entire lives to reforming society. W.E.B. DuBois,
the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University, was a
fierce social critic and dedicated his life to analyzing and writing about
social injustice.
During the 1940s, the emphasis in American
sociology shifted from social reform to social theory. "Grand
theorists," such as Talcott Parsons, developed detailed, abstract models of
how the complex parts of society harmoniously functioned together. Although
this helped to "legitimate" sociology as a "science," it
did little to critique, reform, and/or help to change the social injustices in
society. C. Wright Mills' influential analysis of "the power elite"-a
small group of business, political, and military leaders whose monopoly on
power threatens freedom-helped to shift sociology back toward social reform in
the 1960s and 1970s.
Many sociologists continue to disagree over
the proper uses of social research. Some sociologists practice basic (or pure)
sociology, while others practice applied sociology. Whether one practices basic
or applied sociology, a primary goal of social research is to separate fact
from fiction, while examining the links between what people do and the social
settings that help shape their behavior. The current state of sociology
encompasses social analysis and social reform, with a growing emphasis on
applied sociology-a sort of "middle ground" that, rather than focusing
on large and/or radical social change, uses sociological analysis to help solve
problems in a specific setting.
Central to the study of any science is the
development of theory. A theory is a general statement about how parts of the
world fit together, relate to one another, and affect each other. Sociologists
use three major theories-symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and
confict theory-to observe and interpret social contexts, relationships, and
realities in distinct ways. Symbolic interactionism analyzes how people use
symbols to develop and share their view of the world. Focusing on the micro
level, it studies the different ways that individuals and small groups create,
disseminate, and/or interpret "reality" through their everyday, face-to-face
interactions. Functional analysis examines how the various parts of society
work together to fulfill their respective functions and, consequently, create a
harmonious society. Focusing on the macro level, it also looks at how parts of
society occasionally dysfunction, negatively affecting other parts of society
and, consequently, contributing to a more unstable society. Conflict theory
views the social world in terms of competing groups struggling over scarce
resources. Also focusing on the macro level, it examines how groups of people
with power maintain and/or impose their power, and how groups of people without
power work to acquire power.
Two major trends are shaping the future of
sociology. First, sociology has started to return to its roots - an emphasis on
improving society through scientific research. Public Sociology is a recent
addition to the field intended to embody the applicability of sociology to
addressing social policy changes. Second, globalization is breaking down
national boundaries and expending the scope of sociology as a result. Sociology
is addressing global issues more frequently as a result.
Key
Terms in Chapter One
applied sociology: The use of sociology
to solve social problems—from the micro level of family relationships to the
macro level of crime and pollution. (p. 19)
basic (or pure) sociology: sociological
research, the purpose of which is to make discoveries about life in human
groups, not to make changes in those groups. (p. 19)
bourgeoisie: Karl Marx’s term for
capitalists; those who own the means to produce wealth. (p. 8)
class conflict: Marx’s term for the
struggle between capitalists and workers. (p. 8)
common sense: Those things that “everyone knows” are true. (p. 5)
conflict theory: A theoretical
framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce
resources. (p. 27)
functional analysis: A theoretical
framework in which society is viewed as being composed of various parts, each
with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium;
also known as functionalism and structural functionalism. (p. 24)
generalization: A statement that goes
beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation. (p.
5)
globalization: The extensive interconnections
among nations caused by the expansion of capitalism. (p. 31)
globalization of capitalism: Capitalism
(investing to make profits within a national system) becoming the globe’s
dominant economic system. (p. 31)
latent function: Unintended beneficial
consequences of people’s actions. (p. 25)
macrolevel analysis: An examination of
large-scale patterns of society. (p. 28)
manifest function: The intended
beneficial consequences of people’s actions. (p. 24)
microlevel analysis: An examination of
small-scale patterns of society. (p. 28)
natural sciences: The intellectual and
academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our
natural environment. (p. 3)
nonverbal interaction: Communication
without words through gestures, space, silence, and so on. (p. 28)
objectivity: Total neutrality. (p. 11)
patterns: Recurring characteristics or events. (p. 5)
positivism: The
application of the scientific approach to the social world. (p. 7)
proletariat:
Marx’s term for the exploited class: the mass of workers who do not own the
means of production. (p. 9)
pure or basic sociology: Sociological
research whose purpose is to make discoveries about life in human groups, not
to make changes in those groups. (p. 19)
replication: Repeating a study in order
to check its findings. (p. 12)
science: The application of systematic
methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods. (p. 3)
scientific method: The use of
objective, systematic observations to test theories. (p. 6)
social facts: Durkheim’s term for a
group’s patterns of behavior. (p. 13)
social integration: The degree to which
people feel a part of social groups. (p. 10)
social interaction: What people do when
they are in one another’s presence. (p. 28)
social location: The group memberships
that people have because of their location in history and society. (p. 2)
social sciences: The intellectual and
academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by
means of controlled and repeated observations. (p. 4)
society: A term used to refer to a
group of people who share a culture and a territory. (p. 2)
sociological perspective: Understanding
human behavior by placing it within its broader social context. (p. 2)
sociology: The scientific study of
society and human behavior. (p. 7)
subjective meanings: The meanings that
people give to their own behavior. (p. 12)
symbolic interaction: A theoretical
perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use
to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with
one another. (p. 21)
theory: A general statement about how
some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how
two or more facts are related to one another. (p. 21)
value free: The view that a
sociologist’s personal values should not influence social research. (p. 11)
values: Ideas about what is good or
worthwhile in life; attitudes about the way the world ought to be. (p.
11)
verstehen:
A German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as “to have insight
into someone’s situation.” (p. 12)
Key People in
Chapter One
Jane Addams: Addams
co-founded Hull-House, a settlement house in the immigrant community of
Chicago. After having dedicated her life to working with the poor, Addams
received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. (p. 16)
Auguste Comte: Comte
was the first person to use the term “sociology” and is often credited with
being the founder of sociology for first suggesting that the scientific method
be applied to studying the social world. (p. 7)
W.E.B. DuBois:
DuBois was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard
University. He also co-founded the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). (p. 16)
Emile Durkheim:
Durkheim was the first sociologist to apply objective quantitative research
data to demonstrate how social integration affected people’s behavior and was
largely responsible for getting sociology recognized as a distinct academic
discipline. (p. 9)
Harriet Martineau: Martineau, born into a wealthy English
family, translated Comte’s work into English and published Society in America. (p. 14)
Karl Marx: Marx
believed that the driving force of social change was class conflict, which, in
industrial society, was characterized by a struggle between the bourgeoisie (those who own the means to
produce wealth) and the proletariat
(the great mass of exploited workers who are forced to labor under the
capitalists, because they do not own the means of production). (p. 8)
George Herbert Mead:
Mead helped to develop the symbolic interactionist perspective. (p. 22)
Robert Merton:
Merton defined and described the terms “manifest functions,” “latent
functions,” and “latent dysfunctions.” (p. 24)
C. Wright Mills: Mills examined the relationship between power and freedom in America,
and his influential analysis of “the power elite” helped to shift sociology
away from social theory and back toward social reform. (p. 19)
Talcott Parsons:
Parsons helped to legitimate the field of sociology in America during the 1940s
and 1950s through his large abstract models of society and its working parts;
his works contributed to the continued development of functional analysis,
although they also engendered criticism for ignoring social issues and social
concerns. (p. 19)
Albion Small: Small
founded the sociology department at the University of Chicago and established
the American Journal of Sociology.
(p. 16)
Herbert Spencer:
Spencer coined the term “survival of the fittest,” his evolutionary model of
society in which, over generations of time, the most capable members survive
and the least capable members die out. (p. 8)
Max Weber: Weber’s
two most significant contributions to sociology included his theoretical
contention that religion (and, by extension, culture) was the driving force of
social change (as illustrated in his influential study The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism) and his
methodological contention that sociological research should be objective and
value free. (p. 10)Robert Merton:
Merton defined and described the terms “manifest functions,” “latent
functions,” and “latent dysfunctions.” (p. 24)
C. Wright Mills: Mills examined the relationship between power and freedom in America,
and his influential analysis of “the power elite” helped to shift sociology
away from social theory and back toward social reform. (p. 19)
Talcott Parsons:
Parsons helped to legitimate the field of sociology in America during the 1940s
and 1950s through his large abstract models of society and its working parts;
his works contributed to the continued development of functional analysis,
although they also engendered criticism for ignoring social issues and social
concerns. (p. 19)
Albion Small: Small
founded the sociology department at the University of Chicago and established
the American Journal of Sociology.
(p. 16)
Herbert Spencer:
Spencer coined the term “survival of the fittest,” his evolutionary model of
society in which, over generations of time, the most capable members survive
and the least capable members die out. (p. 8)
No comments:
Post a Comment